The impact of oil price change on USs economy Research Paper

The impact of oil price change on USs economy - Research Paper Example An increase of 54% in the prices of crude oil in 2011 would lead to a double recession in the U.S. This paper aims at examining how shocks of oil prices in the past have impacted the U.S. economy, and makes predictions on how the economy will do in light of the recent oil prices. Using the methodology of forecasting from Hamilton (2008) with time analysis, the paper will use the impulse response functions from the prices of oil to predict the response of GDP. The literature review will be used to describe how oil is an integral part of the economy, and how recessions and oil shocks have coincided ever since World War II. The paper will point out the disagreements in the literature about the impacts of oil shocks on the U.S. economy as well as the asymmetry of price increases and price decreases. According to Hamilton (2010) when an embargo on oil was instituted by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) the global supply of oil fell by 7.5%. The 1973 oil crisis effects were far reaching. According to Forrester (1984), the U.S set the target of reducing the consumption of oil by 25% at that time led by Richard Nixon. A country wide speed limit of 55 miles per hour was temporarily passed by the congress, and this continues until 1988 (Frum, 2010). The use of Christmas trees was banned in Oregon State (Frum, 2010). Many gas stations in the U.S were shut down as a result of insufficient oil supply, as many other gas stations rationed the gasoline supply (Hamilton, 2010). The American lifestyle was threatened by the Middle East instability which had a huge effect on the American people (Dahl, 2003). As a result of the political turmoil in Libya in 2011, the prices of crude oil went up to two and a half year high. As the issue was addressed by the U.S president, it became clear that, the U.S used 7% less oil in 2011 than in 2005, but still depends on the foreign oil. According to the U.S. imports over 55% of crude oil from outside.

Environmental Engineer Essay Example for Free

Environmental Engineer Essay For an Environmental Engineer, it is very important to know the jurisdiction that one will be working in. Not only is thorough knowledge of the natural characteristics such as geological and meteorological aspects of the jurisdiction to scientifically cater to the unique environmental concerns of a certain area, but it is also essential that one also knowledge of the social and judicial aspects of the jurisdiction for easier cooperation with the citizens and more efficient applications of environmental impact assessments and mitigations or development of environmental policy and regulation, for example. The Northwest Territories and Nunavut are unique in many aspects that concern Environmental Engineering practice. In general, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are already geared towards environmental safety, conservation, and regulation. For example, in the Northwest Territories, programs are already in place to ensure sustainability of forest use, regulation of wildlife protection and use, etc. In Nunavut, their Department of Environment actively apply what they call Avatittinnik Kamatsiarniq, or environmental stewardship, to conserve their vast natural resources and promote sustainability, a principle that is based on the Inuit culture and must be respected by any Environmental Engineer who plans to practice in that territory. In fact, one must have good knowledge of that culture as the Inuit populace of Nunavut make up the majority of the demographic and thus their culture and belief system have a great influence on governmental policies, considering that the self-governing system of the Inuit is unique to Nunavut and issues such as land claims are a constant concern. Similarly, the agencies of the Northwest territories also make use of the traditional knowledge of the Inuit concerning the natural resources and the relationship between man and environment. As North American Indians comprise the majority of the population in the Northwest Territories, they appreciate the value of this knowledge and these are taken into consideration in the making of public policies which include environmental engineering law. To work in the Northwest Territories, one must be aware of programs such as the NWT Protected Areas Strategy, that utilizes a community-based process as it makes sure to respect Aboriginal rights to balance conservation and economic development. The programs already in place and the social set-up of the jurisdiction are only part of the concerns of an Environment Engineer, of course the physical aspects of the territories are also important. The weather is an important part of the culture of the Aboriginal people, not only are the weather extremes (such as the record-breaking Arctic heat in Nunavut) and the natural hazards serious concerns, climate change is also a much monitored phenomenon. The geological makeup and position of Nunavut and the Northwest territories make them very vulnerable to climate change effects, such as the possible melting of permafrost. In the Northwest Territories, their use of their abundant mineral resources have caused a great strain in the environment such as the giant earth scars left by diamond mines or the hazardous tailings pond spills, and the Environmental Engineer should not only be aware of these for future mining operations but could also work together with other agencies to alleviate these prior issues. Furthermore, the geology of Nunavut can span most of Earths history with great economic potential yet it is still very underdeveloped, and yet, they are actively advertising extreme sports tourism which could cause environmental as well as safety concerns. In all, there is a balance in the naturalistic Aboriginal-based society and community and the raw environment of this jurisdiction that gives the Environmental Engineer a unique practice.

Procurement Methods for Design and Construction

Procurement Methods for Design and Construction 1.0 Introduction A client brief has been provided for the development of a new facility in the University of Salford. In this report, a review will be carried out based on the requirements of the client in the brief and critically analyse the potential procurement methods for both the design and construction of the project. Recommendations for the appropriate procurement route and forms of contract supporting by detailed reasons will be suggested in the report. The Client, The University of Salford, is aspiring to become an outstanding University renowned for the quality of its engagement, humanity, global reach and leadership in research, innovation and education. Strategic plan has been developed to achieve the Universitys goal which is to be ranked amongst the very best of UK universities and recognized internationally by 2017. To achieve this objective, the School of the Built Environment is intended to develop a new facility within the university campus. The building is to be a prestigious and high aesthetic facility which will replace an older building in the university. The new proposed building will contain facilities listed as below: State of the art lecture theatres Meeting rooms Extensive classroom and studio facilities Office accommodation Laboratory accommodation Learning Resource Units External works In addition, the Client requires the new facility to be carbon neutral to be in accordance with the University policy. Furthermore, the Client has allocates a budget of  £ 20 million to cover the total development cost of the project. This cost will include construction works, external works, statutory and professional fees. This proposed building must be completed and handover by 1st of August 2012. The completion date is critical as the facility must be ready for the new academic year. In short, the Clients key requirements and objectives of this new build building are listed as follows: New university facility which will realise the Universitys goal to become a high reputable and internationally renowned university. The facility is to be constructed in highest aesthetic and qualitative standards. The budget of the project is  £ 20 million. The construction time is important as the building is needed by 1st of August 2012 at the very latest. To carry out the construction works of this new facility, the Client needs to understand the various procurement methods available for the project. Hence, this report will analyse the key procurement issues for the Client to consider. 2.0 Procurement Assessment Criteria (PAC) Turner (1990) says that ‘the procurement route that is appropriate to the overall balance of objectives and to client priorities for each project should arise from those objectives and priorities. There are several procurement assessment criteria being set as a guide to choose the appropriate method of procurement: Time Complexity Quality Cost Risk Flexibility In this case, three main criteria which are time, cost and quality will be focused and assessed in the following sections for this particular project to find the most suitable procurement route that balance between these three criteria. Figure 2.1: The balance of time, cost and quality 3.0 Traditional Procurement The traditional system, probably the most commonly adopted procurement strategy in UK, sometimes referred as ‘design-bid-build method. This is because the traditional route separates the responsibility for the design of the project from its construction with a ‘tendering period (Cooke Williams, 2009). Initially, the client appoints consultants for design and for cost control and contract administration of the project. After the design is completed, the tender stage starts by using two stage tendering or negotiation to appoint a contractor for the project. The appointed contractor will then enters into a direct contract with the client and responsible to build and deliver the project. The organizational structure of traditional procurement is shown in Figure 3.1. In addition, due to the design must be completed before the tender stage, the cost of construction can be determined with reasonable certainty before the construction commences on site (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi , 2006). Client Consultant Contractor QS, structural engineer Architect Subcontractor Supplier Figure 3.1: Traditional procurement (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) The traditional procurement is commonly used because of its particular advantages. These advantages are listed as follows: The design is complete before tendering ensures price certainty for the client. The design does not substantially change during construction therefore contract variations can be kept to a minimum. The client able to have direct influence and retains control over the design team, thus quality in the design can be assured. Detailed information such as drawings and Bills of Quantities provide a common basis for tendering and evaluation is relatively easy. The procedures are well known and enabling confidence to be assured in parties which involved throughout the process. Variations and contract changes are relatively easy to handle. Firm contractual date for completion. While this procurement route has its advantages, there are also criticisms. The main disadvantages are: The duration of project may be longer than other procurement methods as the strategies is sequential and construction cannot be commenced before the completion of design. A longer duration of project may make the cost of project higher because of the increased period of interim financing charges and interim payment to the contractor and consultants. These may cause the cost of project exceeds the clients budget. All the design risk is carried by the client. The contractor has no input into the design and planning of the project. The sequential nature of this system can result in poor communication between the client and the project team and can be cause of expensive disputes. 3.1 Cost By adapting this method of procurement, the cost is agreed as a lump sum fixed price between the University and the contractor thus provides overall cost certainty for the University before the construction commences on site. Besides, the project cost can be estimated, monitored and controlled by the Clients cost consultant during the whole project period and therefore large cost overruns will not occur which is an important advantage to the Client. In addition, traditional method could provide the Client value of money. As explained before, since the design stage is completed before the construction, the design and cost consultant team of the Client will corporate to ensure the design is value for money. 3.2 Time With this procurement route, as the design is carried out before the tender process, the length of time spent to develop the design and prepare the tender documents by the consultant team can be very long. This process tends to prevent the construction works to be started on site. In fact, traditional procurement is identified as the slowest method of procurement compare to others. Hence, this is a disadvantage for this new university facility project as the date of completion is critical. 3.3 Quality The traditional procurement provides the high degree of certainty that the quality and aesthetic standards will be met (Masterman, 2002). This is because the University can select the most appropriate design team for this project to complete the design before the tender stage. During the design stage, the University has direct control and influence over the design therefore can ensure the high aesthetic and quality standards for the new facility are fulfilled. 4.0 Design and build Procurement Ashworth (2006) defined design and build as ‘a procurement arrangement where one single entity or consortium is contractually responsible to the client for both the design and construction of the project. In other words, under a design and build strategy, a single contractor takes the risk and responsibility for designing and building the project. The client will employ a design team to carry out some preliminary design or scheme design. The client will then appoint a contractor to assume the responsibility for the design as well as the construction process. The contractor needs to develop the scheme design to a detailed design. Figure 4.1 illustrates the relationships between the parties that involved in the project. In this method of procurement, the construction can start before the detailed design is completed, but at the contractors risk (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006). In practice, design and build procurement consist of a range of variable. The two common variants of this type of procurement are client-led design and build and contractor-led design and build. Client Architect or QS advisers Contractor Subcontractor Suppliers Architect and other designers Figure 4.1: Design and build (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) In client-led design and build, also known as develop and construct, a small number of contractors will be invited to tender for the project when the design is virtually completed possibly with full bills of quantities or notional bills. In this procurement route, study of Cooke Williams (2009) indicates that the client is fully involved in the design development and therefore the design risk is taken fully by the client as the contractor has little involvement to the fundamental design. Additionally, the client will be responsible for all design fees from start to ends of the project. There is an alternative to this method which is a popular practice in the construction industry. Once the contract has been awarded, the design team including the clients architect and other members of the design team will be novated to the contractor. In other words, the contractual obligation to complete the detail aspect of design is legally passed over to the contractor. In this way, the client wi ll maintain an interest in the design but the contractor will be responsible to the continuing design fees and the entire design (Cooke Williams, 2009). On the other hand, in contractor-led design and build, the client may provide minimal information in the outline brief to the contractor. Thus, the contractor is fully responsible for the conceptual and detailed design. As a result, the contractor has to produce a building which meets the clients requirement. In this situation, the contractor takes all of the responsibilities, risks and rewards of design. The contractor may provide an in-house design facility or engage independent design teams (Cooke Williams, 2009). It is preferable to appoint a design team coordinator to ensure the flow of information between the design team and the project team. The main advantages of design and build procurement are listed as follows: The client has only to deal with one firm since the contractor provides single-point responsibility for design and construction. Price certainty is obtained before the commencement of construction works provided the clients requirements are adequately specified and changes are not introduced. The total cost of project is usually lesser than other types of procurement systems. The overall project period is reduced because of overlapping activities as construction can be started before the design is completed. Despite its advantages, design and build has many arguments among the practitioners and client of the industry. The drawbacks of this procurement method are: Tender bids are difficult to compare since each design will be different result in different project time and prices. The tender period and negotiation tends to be much longer Changes of client to project scope can be expensive. No guarantee in terms of design and quality because has less control over this aspect. The client may find difficult in preparing an adequate and sufficiently comprehensive brief. 4.1 Cost The design and build approach enables the contractor to be more positive about the final cost to the Client at an earlier stage (Masterman, 2002). The price would be agreed between the Client and the contractor before construction commences on site. Besides, the initial cost and final cost of using this procurement system are usually lower than other procurement approaches. This is mainly because of the reduction in design costs and the integration of design and construction process. However, value for money is difficult to assess in this type of procurement. This is because there is usually limited information available at the tender stage, not to mention there are different methods, designs and services can be offered by the contractor. As a result, the Client may not be able to judge the efficiency of the design. 4.2 Time The specialty of this procurement route is that the contractor is responsible for both design and construction. Therefore, it allows the overlap of design and construction phases thus reduce the overall project period. This would be an advantage for the University because it ensures the construction works of the new facility can be commenced early. According to Masterman (2002), design and build projects have a better record in terms of completion on time. Hence, the University would be able to have the new building ready for new academic year by using this method of procurement. 4.3 Quality This method of procurement would not be a suitable procurement for this high aesthetic and quality standards project. Design and build is belief that most suitable for simple uncomplicated project which the aesthetic and quality of the project is low. The reason for this is that the contractor is responsible to develop the detailed design of the project. In some circumstances, inevitably the contractor will economise the cost of design to boost the profit margins which will caused a negative effect on the project quality. Additionally, in a design and build project, if the Client unable to provide a satisfactory brief, it is possible result in the Clients functional and quality requirements being unsatisfied. 5.0 Management Procurement 5.1 Management Contracting In this procurement strategy, a management contractor is engaged by the client to manage a number of work package subcontractors in return for a fee. Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) stated that the management contractor has direct contractual links with all of the subcontractors and carries the responsibility for the construction works without actually carrying out that work. In this method of procurement, the works are let in forms of work package and subcontractors will bids competitively for each work package to obtain the work. The relationship between the parties in management contracting is shown in Figure 5.1.1. Client Consultants Contractor QS, structural engineer Architect Work contractor Figure 5.1.1: Management contracting (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) Management contracting is a ‘fast track strategy says Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006). The work package approach allows the maximum overlap design and construction activities. In more general terms, provided that the work package is completed, the subcontractor may starts works on site before all of the design works are completed. Therefore, the overall project period can be reduced. Due to the nature of this type of procurement, cost certainty cannot be achieved until all packages of work is tendered and let. Hence, strict control of the work package budget is essential for the success of the project (Cooke Williams, 2009). In this strategy, the client reimburses the cost of the work packages to the appointed management contractor who will then pay the subcontractors. So, it is important to appoint the management contractor carefully and ensure that the management fee is appropriate. As the common characteristics of management contracting are previously described, the advantages of this procurement route can now identified: Overlapping of the design and construction processes tends to save time for the overall project thus enables earlier completion to be achieved. The nature of the procurement enables the contractor contribution to design and project planning. Changes can be accommodated provided that packages affected have not been let and there is little or no impact on those already let. Quality of the project can be assured as the design can be developed in stages and site supervisor can be appointed to ensure the quality standard is achieved. On the other hand, there are also weaknesses in this procurement method. The disadvantages are listed as follows: Poor price certainty at the early stage and the potential cost commitment depends on the design team estimates. The total cost of project is usually unknown until the project is well into the construction programme. The client must provide a good quality brief to the design team as the design will not be completed until the client has committed significant resources to the project. The client is responsible for the majority of the project risks. Damages of delay are difficult to pin on one subcontractor. 5.2 Construction Management Under a construction management strategy, Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) points out that the client does not allocate risk and responsibility to a single main contractor. The client employs the design team and appoints a construction manager based on a negotiated fee simply to manage, programme and co-ordinate the design and construction activities carried out by the work package contractors. Unlike the management contracting, the each work package contractors have direct contractual link with the client and is paid directly by the client (see Figure 5.2.1). Client QS, structural engineer Architect Construction manager Trade contractor Trade contractor Figure 5.2.1: Construction management (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) The construction manager will provides professional construction expertise without assuming financial risk because there is no contractual link with design team or work package contractors. Hence, by using this procurement route, Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) stated that the client has to be involved closely in the design and construction phases and take necessary actions based on the recommendations from the construction manager. Therefore, this method of procurement is not suitable for inexperienced client. It is recommended to use this procurement for large and complex project or a high degree of design innovation where the client wants deep involvement. Basically, the construction contracting has the similar advantages and disadvantages with the management contracting. Therefore, they will not discuss more in this section and please refer to the previous section if necessary. 5.3 Cost The uncertainty of price will be seen as a disadvantage for the management procurement system. However, the benefit of this ‘fast track strategy may result in cost savings and offsetting extra construction costs. Therefore, it could reduce the overall expense of the project. Besides, in this procurement, the cost of the project can be minimised by improving buildability and by work package contractors undertake the works at competitive prices. 5.4 Time For projects which need fast design and construction period, this would be the appropriate type of procurement to be used. The overlapping of design and construction phases will allows an early start of construction works on site and therefore saving in time can be achieved. Since the time of completion is an important issue in this project, the Client would be suggested to consider to adopting this procurement methods. 5.5 Quality Under this procurement route, the quality of the completed project can be achieved which fully meet the Clients needs provided that the design team is working closely with the management contractor on all aspect of the project to ensure he is fully aware of the design constraints as well as the Clients requirements. Besides, due to the management contractor is appointed at the early stage, he will be able to contribute his construction expertise to achieving an efficient quality standard for this project. 6.0 Justification of procurement strategy 6.1 Procurement Matrix After considering and evaluating the options of procurement available for the project, the most appropriate procurement system that suitable for the project can be selected. This can be achieved by assessing and setting the priorities of the project objectives in terms of time, quality and cost and the client attitude to risk. A universal procurement selection technique which is a procurement matrix is employed to help to select an appropriate procurement strategy for this particular project. The Universitys key objectives and requirements of this project are taken into account during the assessment. After completing this procurement matrix, the result shows that Management Contracting would be best suited procurement system for this new university facility project. Please see the attachment for the completed procurement matrix for this project. 6.2 Procurement strategy After a critical analysis of the procurement options as discussed above and completing the procurement matrix, the Management Contracting route is highly recommended to be adopted for this new build facility project. The reasons of this suggestion is being made are discussed as below. 6.2.1 Cost strategy In terms of cost issue, the Management Contracting probably is not the most recommended procurement systems compare to Traditional and Design and Build. This is because it is not the greatest at providing price certainty to ensure the budget of  £ 20 million can be met at the beginning of the project. However, Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) points out that this does not mean that the Client has less control over the project cost as strict supervision can be exerted over this aspect of the project. Due to that each package of work are being let by competition between contractors, the Client can monitor the cost closely and if necessary, adjust later work packages in order to cover any cost overruns in the previous work package. Furthermore, the University has to appoint the Management Contractor so that he can advise and contribute at the design process based on his professional expertise and carry out value engineering works to ensure the project is being built within the budget. 6.2.2 Time strategy The completion on time is a key requirement of this project. The Client has specifically required that the new facility must be completed on 1st August 2012. Under this circumstance, Management Contracting would be appropriate to meet the deadline. Due to the rapid progress of this procurement which provides overlapping of design and construction phases allows early commencement of works on site and therefore results in time saving. Moreover, the key strategy to ensure the project is completed on time is to make sure that all of the information from the design team is continuously issued on time to the Management Contractor and to ensure that the Management Contractor is always being updated. Hence, these could avoid any misunderstandings and delays during the construction works. Besides, the competency and experience of the Management Contractor will also ensure this ‘fast track procurement can be carried out efficiently. A high level of experience Management Contractor who familiar with this type of procurement route must be appointed so that the works on site are well manage and control throughout the whole process. 6.2.3 Quality strategy The Management Contracting would ensure the required high quality and aesthetic standards of this new build project can be successfully met. This is because this type of procurement method allows the Client to appoint and oversee the design team to develop detailed design which fulfills the specific requirements. Furthermore, to ensure the quality and aesthetic standards of this university facility are met, the Client has to make sure that the design team are aware and focus from the beginning of the project to develop the design based on these commitments. Additionally, all of the detailed drawings and specification produced by the design team must go into the contract between the Client and the Management Contractor so that the requirements of the Client are well informed thus can be managed efficiently the works on site to ensure the requirements are met. 7.0 Form of Contract A contract is defined by Cooke Williams (2009) as a means of formalising the relationship between the contracting parties in which the rights and obligations of the parties are agreed and the balance of risk between the parties established. The contracts also establish how administrative procedures and the serving of formal notices are to be conducted and mechanisms for dealing with contract payments, delays, compensation and disputes says Cooke. There are several of contracts produced by different bodies used in the construction industry but by far the JCT (Joint Contracts Tribunal) is the most popular forms of contract in use. Hence, the JCT 2005 Management Building Contract is recommended to be used in this project. The JCT 2005 Management Building Contract comprises (Hackett, Robinson Statham, 2007): Management Building Contract Management Works Contract Tender Agreement Management Works Contract Conditions Management Work Contract / Employer Agreement Under this forms of contract, the management contractor tenders on the basis of a management fee and the works contract are being let by separate packages when the design of those packages are developed (Cooke Williams, 2009). The management contractor is legally bound with these work package contractors under the Management Works Contract. In other words, the management contractor is responsible to manage the work package contractors. Moreover, during the design stages, the contract also requires the management contractor to cooperate with the consultant team such as architect, engineering and quantity surveyor. In addition, all necessary programmes for execution of the project which includes detailed construction programme are required to prepare by the management contractor (Cooke Williams, 2009). Under the contract, the management contractors duties include maintaining and regularly updating the detailed construction programme. 8.0 Conclusion In conclusion, the Management Contracting is the most suitable procurement route for this project. This procurement system allows the Client to design the new university facility according to his requirements and appoints the Management Contractor to manage the construction works on site. Using the Management Contracting, the price certainty can be achieved with close monitor of the cost of each work packages so that the building can be built within the budget of  £ 20 million. Furthermore, the advantage of this ‘fast track procurement method tends to meet the time of completion for this project. Last but not least, since this is a prestigious project, this type of procurement route ensure the high quality and aesthetic standards are met in accordance with the Clients requirements. With these, it is recommended for the University to adopt the Management Contracting as the method of procurement to maximise the success of the project. Procurement Methods for Design and Construction Procurement Methods for Design and Construction 1.0 Introduction A client brief has been provided for the development of a new facility in the University of Salford. In this report, a review will be carried out based on the requirements of the client in the brief and critically analyse the potential procurement methods for both the design and construction of the project. Recommendations for the appropriate procurement route and forms of contract supporting by detailed reasons will be suggested in the report. The Client, The University of Salford, is aspiring to become an outstanding University renowned for the quality of its engagement, humanity, global reach and leadership in research, innovation and education. Strategic plan has been developed to achieve the Universitys goal which is to be ranked amongst the very best of UK universities and recognized internationally by 2017. To achieve this objective, the School of the Built Environment is intended to develop a new facility within the university campus. The building is to be a prestigious and high aesthetic facility which will replace an older building in the university. The new proposed building will contain facilities listed as below: State of the art lecture theatres Meeting rooms Extensive classroom and studio facilities Office accommodation Laboratory accommodation Learning Resource Units External works In addition, the Client requires the new facility to be carbon neutral to be in accordance with the University policy. Furthermore, the Client has allocates a budget of  £ 20 million to cover the total development cost of the project. This cost will include construction works, external works, statutory and professional fees. This proposed building must be completed and handover by 1st of August 2012. The completion date is critical as the facility must be ready for the new academic year. In short, the Clients key requirements and objectives of this new build building are listed as follows: New university facility which will realise the Universitys goal to become a high reputable and internationally renowned university. The facility is to be constructed in highest aesthetic and qualitative standards. The budget of the project is  £ 20 million. The construction time is important as the building is needed by 1st of August 2012 at the very latest. To carry out the construction works of this new facility, the Client needs to understand the various procurement methods available for the project. Hence, this report will analyse the key procurement issues for the Client to consider. 2.0 Procurement Assessment Criteria (PAC) Turner (1990) says that ‘the procurement route that is appropriate to the overall balance of objectives and to client priorities for each project should arise from those objectives and priorities. There are several procurement assessment criteria being set as a guide to choose the appropriate method of procurement: Time Complexity Quality Cost Risk Flexibility In this case, three main criteria which are time, cost and quality will be focused and assessed in the following sections for this particular project to find the most suitable procurement route that balance between these three criteria. Figure 2.1: The balance of time, cost and quality 3.0 Traditional Procurement The traditional system, probably the most commonly adopted procurement strategy in UK, sometimes referred as ‘design-bid-build method. This is because the traditional route separates the responsibility for the design of the project from its construction with a ‘tendering period (Cooke Williams, 2009). Initially, the client appoints consultants for design and for cost control and contract administration of the project. After the design is completed, the tender stage starts by using two stage tendering or negotiation to appoint a contractor for the project. The appointed contractor will then enters into a direct contract with the client and responsible to build and deliver the project. The organizational structure of traditional procurement is shown in Figure 3.1. In addition, due to the design must be completed before the tender stage, the cost of construction can be determined with reasonable certainty before the construction commences on site (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi , 2006). Client Consultant Contractor QS, structural engineer Architect Subcontractor Supplier Figure 3.1: Traditional procurement (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) The traditional procurement is commonly used because of its particular advantages. These advantages are listed as follows: The design is complete before tendering ensures price certainty for the client. The design does not substantially change during construction therefore contract variations can be kept to a minimum. The client able to have direct influence and retains control over the design team, thus quality in the design can be assured. Detailed information such as drawings and Bills of Quantities provide a common basis for tendering and evaluation is relatively easy. The procedures are well known and enabling confidence to be assured in parties which involved throughout the process. Variations and contract changes are relatively easy to handle. Firm contractual date for completion. While this procurement route has its advantages, there are also criticisms. The main disadvantages are: The duration of project may be longer than other procurement methods as the strategies is sequential and construction cannot be commenced before the completion of design. A longer duration of project may make the cost of project higher because of the increased period of interim financing charges and interim payment to the contractor and consultants. These may cause the cost of project exceeds the clients budget. All the design risk is carried by the client. The contractor has no input into the design and planning of the project. The sequential nature of this system can result in poor communication between the client and the project team and can be cause of expensive disputes. 3.1 Cost By adapting this method of procurement, the cost is agreed as a lump sum fixed price between the University and the contractor thus provides overall cost certainty for the University before the construction commences on site. Besides, the project cost can be estimated, monitored and controlled by the Clients cost consultant during the whole project period and therefore large cost overruns will not occur which is an important advantage to the Client. In addition, traditional method could provide the Client value of money. As explained before, since the design stage is completed before the construction, the design and cost consultant team of the Client will corporate to ensure the design is value for money. 3.2 Time With this procurement route, as the design is carried out before the tender process, the length of time spent to develop the design and prepare the tender documents by the consultant team can be very long. This process tends to prevent the construction works to be started on site. In fact, traditional procurement is identified as the slowest method of procurement compare to others. Hence, this is a disadvantage for this new university facility project as the date of completion is critical. 3.3 Quality The traditional procurement provides the high degree of certainty that the quality and aesthetic standards will be met (Masterman, 2002). This is because the University can select the most appropriate design team for this project to complete the design before the tender stage. During the design stage, the University has direct control and influence over the design therefore can ensure the high aesthetic and quality standards for the new facility are fulfilled. 4.0 Design and build Procurement Ashworth (2006) defined design and build as ‘a procurement arrangement where one single entity or consortium is contractually responsible to the client for both the design and construction of the project. In other words, under a design and build strategy, a single contractor takes the risk and responsibility for designing and building the project. The client will employ a design team to carry out some preliminary design or scheme design. The client will then appoint a contractor to assume the responsibility for the design as well as the construction process. The contractor needs to develop the scheme design to a detailed design. Figure 4.1 illustrates the relationships between the parties that involved in the project. In this method of procurement, the construction can start before the detailed design is completed, but at the contractors risk (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006). In practice, design and build procurement consist of a range of variable. The two common variants of this type of procurement are client-led design and build and contractor-led design and build. Client Architect or QS advisers Contractor Subcontractor Suppliers Architect and other designers Figure 4.1: Design and build (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) In client-led design and build, also known as develop and construct, a small number of contractors will be invited to tender for the project when the design is virtually completed possibly with full bills of quantities or notional bills. In this procurement route, study of Cooke Williams (2009) indicates that the client is fully involved in the design development and therefore the design risk is taken fully by the client as the contractor has little involvement to the fundamental design. Additionally, the client will be responsible for all design fees from start to ends of the project. There is an alternative to this method which is a popular practice in the construction industry. Once the contract has been awarded, the design team including the clients architect and other members of the design team will be novated to the contractor. In other words, the contractual obligation to complete the detail aspect of design is legally passed over to the contractor. In this way, the client wi ll maintain an interest in the design but the contractor will be responsible to the continuing design fees and the entire design (Cooke Williams, 2009). On the other hand, in contractor-led design and build, the client may provide minimal information in the outline brief to the contractor. Thus, the contractor is fully responsible for the conceptual and detailed design. As a result, the contractor has to produce a building which meets the clients requirement. In this situation, the contractor takes all of the responsibilities, risks and rewards of design. The contractor may provide an in-house design facility or engage independent design teams (Cooke Williams, 2009). It is preferable to appoint a design team coordinator to ensure the flow of information between the design team and the project team. The main advantages of design and build procurement are listed as follows: The client has only to deal with one firm since the contractor provides single-point responsibility for design and construction. Price certainty is obtained before the commencement of construction works provided the clients requirements are adequately specified and changes are not introduced. The total cost of project is usually lesser than other types of procurement systems. The overall project period is reduced because of overlapping activities as construction can be started before the design is completed. Despite its advantages, design and build has many arguments among the practitioners and client of the industry. The drawbacks of this procurement method are: Tender bids are difficult to compare since each design will be different result in different project time and prices. The tender period and negotiation tends to be much longer Changes of client to project scope can be expensive. No guarantee in terms of design and quality because has less control over this aspect. The client may find difficult in preparing an adequate and sufficiently comprehensive brief. 4.1 Cost The design and build approach enables the contractor to be more positive about the final cost to the Client at an earlier stage (Masterman, 2002). The price would be agreed between the Client and the contractor before construction commences on site. Besides, the initial cost and final cost of using this procurement system are usually lower than other procurement approaches. This is mainly because of the reduction in design costs and the integration of design and construction process. However, value for money is difficult to assess in this type of procurement. This is because there is usually limited information available at the tender stage, not to mention there are different methods, designs and services can be offered by the contractor. As a result, the Client may not be able to judge the efficiency of the design. 4.2 Time The specialty of this procurement route is that the contractor is responsible for both design and construction. Therefore, it allows the overlap of design and construction phases thus reduce the overall project period. This would be an advantage for the University because it ensures the construction works of the new facility can be commenced early. According to Masterman (2002), design and build projects have a better record in terms of completion on time. Hence, the University would be able to have the new building ready for new academic year by using this method of procurement. 4.3 Quality This method of procurement would not be a suitable procurement for this high aesthetic and quality standards project. Design and build is belief that most suitable for simple uncomplicated project which the aesthetic and quality of the project is low. The reason for this is that the contractor is responsible to develop the detailed design of the project. In some circumstances, inevitably the contractor will economise the cost of design to boost the profit margins which will caused a negative effect on the project quality. Additionally, in a design and build project, if the Client unable to provide a satisfactory brief, it is possible result in the Clients functional and quality requirements being unsatisfied. 5.0 Management Procurement 5.1 Management Contracting In this procurement strategy, a management contractor is engaged by the client to manage a number of work package subcontractors in return for a fee. Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) stated that the management contractor has direct contractual links with all of the subcontractors and carries the responsibility for the construction works without actually carrying out that work. In this method of procurement, the works are let in forms of work package and subcontractors will bids competitively for each work package to obtain the work. The relationship between the parties in management contracting is shown in Figure 5.1.1. Client Consultants Contractor QS, structural engineer Architect Work contractor Figure 5.1.1: Management contracting (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) Management contracting is a ‘fast track strategy says Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006). The work package approach allows the maximum overlap design and construction activities. In more general terms, provided that the work package is completed, the subcontractor may starts works on site before all of the design works are completed. Therefore, the overall project period can be reduced. Due to the nature of this type of procurement, cost certainty cannot be achieved until all packages of work is tendered and let. Hence, strict control of the work package budget is essential for the success of the project (Cooke Williams, 2009). In this strategy, the client reimburses the cost of the work packages to the appointed management contractor who will then pay the subcontractors. So, it is important to appoint the management contractor carefully and ensure that the management fee is appropriate. As the common characteristics of management contracting are previously described, the advantages of this procurement route can now identified: Overlapping of the design and construction processes tends to save time for the overall project thus enables earlier completion to be achieved. The nature of the procurement enables the contractor contribution to design and project planning. Changes can be accommodated provided that packages affected have not been let and there is little or no impact on those already let. Quality of the project can be assured as the design can be developed in stages and site supervisor can be appointed to ensure the quality standard is achieved. On the other hand, there are also weaknesses in this procurement method. The disadvantages are listed as follows: Poor price certainty at the early stage and the potential cost commitment depends on the design team estimates. The total cost of project is usually unknown until the project is well into the construction programme. The client must provide a good quality brief to the design team as the design will not be completed until the client has committed significant resources to the project. The client is responsible for the majority of the project risks. Damages of delay are difficult to pin on one subcontractor. 5.2 Construction Management Under a construction management strategy, Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) points out that the client does not allocate risk and responsibility to a single main contractor. The client employs the design team and appoints a construction manager based on a negotiated fee simply to manage, programme and co-ordinate the design and construction activities carried out by the work package contractors. Unlike the management contracting, the each work package contractors have direct contractual link with the client and is paid directly by the client (see Figure 5.2.1). Client QS, structural engineer Architect Construction manager Trade contractor Trade contractor Figure 5.2.1: Construction management (Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi, 2006) The construction manager will provides professional construction expertise without assuming financial risk because there is no contractual link with design team or work package contractors. Hence, by using this procurement route, Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) stated that the client has to be involved closely in the design and construction phases and take necessary actions based on the recommendations from the construction manager. Therefore, this method of procurement is not suitable for inexperienced client. It is recommended to use this procurement for large and complex project or a high degree of design innovation where the client wants deep involvement. Basically, the construction contracting has the similar advantages and disadvantages with the management contracting. Therefore, they will not discuss more in this section and please refer to the previous section if necessary. 5.3 Cost The uncertainty of price will be seen as a disadvantage for the management procurement system. However, the benefit of this ‘fast track strategy may result in cost savings and offsetting extra construction costs. Therefore, it could reduce the overall expense of the project. Besides, in this procurement, the cost of the project can be minimised by improving buildability and by work package contractors undertake the works at competitive prices. 5.4 Time For projects which need fast design and construction period, this would be the appropriate type of procurement to be used. The overlapping of design and construction phases will allows an early start of construction works on site and therefore saving in time can be achieved. Since the time of completion is an important issue in this project, the Client would be suggested to consider to adopting this procurement methods. 5.5 Quality Under this procurement route, the quality of the completed project can be achieved which fully meet the Clients needs provided that the design team is working closely with the management contractor on all aspect of the project to ensure he is fully aware of the design constraints as well as the Clients requirements. Besides, due to the management contractor is appointed at the early stage, he will be able to contribute his construction expertise to achieving an efficient quality standard for this project. 6.0 Justification of procurement strategy 6.1 Procurement Matrix After considering and evaluating the options of procurement available for the project, the most appropriate procurement system that suitable for the project can be selected. This can be achieved by assessing and setting the priorities of the project objectives in terms of time, quality and cost and the client attitude to risk. A universal procurement selection technique which is a procurement matrix is employed to help to select an appropriate procurement strategy for this particular project. The Universitys key objectives and requirements of this project are taken into account during the assessment. After completing this procurement matrix, the result shows that Management Contracting would be best suited procurement system for this new university facility project. Please see the attachment for the completed procurement matrix for this project. 6.2 Procurement strategy After a critical analysis of the procurement options as discussed above and completing the procurement matrix, the Management Contracting route is highly recommended to be adopted for this new build facility project. The reasons of this suggestion is being made are discussed as below. 6.2.1 Cost strategy In terms of cost issue, the Management Contracting probably is not the most recommended procurement systems compare to Traditional and Design and Build. This is because it is not the greatest at providing price certainty to ensure the budget of  £ 20 million can be met at the beginning of the project. However, Morledge, Smith Kashiwagi (2006) points out that this does not mean that the Client has less control over the project cost as strict supervision can be exerted over this aspect of the project. Due to that each package of work are being let by competition between contractors, the Client can monitor the cost closely and if necessary, adjust later work packages in order to cover any cost overruns in the previous work package. Furthermore, the University has to appoint the Management Contractor so that he can advise and contribute at the design process based on his professional expertise and carry out value engineering works to ensure the project is being built within the budget. 6.2.2 Time strategy The completion on time is a key requirement of this project. The Client has specifically required that the new facility must be completed on 1st August 2012. Under this circumstance, Management Contracting would be appropriate to meet the deadline. Due to the rapid progress of this procurement which provides overlapping of design and construction phases allows early commencement of works on site and therefore results in time saving. Moreover, the key strategy to ensure the project is completed on time is to make sure that all of the information from the design team is continuously issued on time to the Management Contractor and to ensure that the Management Contractor is always being updated. Hence, these could avoid any misunderstandings and delays during the construction works. Besides, the competency and experience of the Management Contractor will also ensure this ‘fast track procurement can be carried out efficiently. A high level of experience Management Contractor who familiar with this type of procurement route must be appointed so that the works on site are well manage and control throughout the whole process. 6.2.3 Quality strategy The Management Contracting would ensure the required high quality and aesthetic standards of this new build project can be successfully met. This is because this type of procurement method allows the Client to appoint and oversee the design team to develop detailed design which fulfills the specific requirements. Furthermore, to ensure the quality and aesthetic standards of this university facility are met, the Client has to make sure that the design team are aware and focus from the beginning of the project to develop the design based on these commitments. Additionally, all of the detailed drawings and specification produced by the design team must go into the contract between the Client and the Management Contractor so that the requirements of the Client are well informed thus can be managed efficiently the works on site to ensure the requirements are met. 7.0 Form of Contract A contract is defined by Cooke Williams (2009) as a means of formalising the relationship between the contracting parties in which the rights and obligations of the parties are agreed and the balance of risk between the parties established. The contracts also establish how administrative procedures and the serving of formal notices are to be conducted and mechanisms for dealing with contract payments, delays, compensation and disputes says Cooke. There are several of contracts produced by different bodies used in the construction industry but by far the JCT (Joint Contracts Tribunal) is the most popular forms of contract in use. Hence, the JCT 2005 Management Building Contract is recommended to be used in this project. The JCT 2005 Management Building Contract comprises (Hackett, Robinson Statham, 2007): Management Building Contract Management Works Contract Tender Agreement Management Works Contract Conditions Management Work Contract / Employer Agreement Under this forms of contract, the management contractor tenders on the basis of a management fee and the works contract are being let by separate packages when the design of those packages are developed (Cooke Williams, 2009). The management contractor is legally bound with these work package contractors under the Management Works Contract. In other words, the management contractor is responsible to manage the work package contractors. Moreover, during the design stages, the contract also requires the management contractor to cooperate with the consultant team such as architect, engineering and quantity surveyor. In addition, all necessary programmes for execution of the project which includes detailed construction programme are required to prepare by the management contractor (Cooke Williams, 2009). Under the contract, the management contractors duties include maintaining and regularly updating the detailed construction programme. 8.0 Conclusion In conclusion, the Management Contracting is the most suitable procurement route for this project. This procurement system allows the Client to design the new university facility according to his requirements and appoints the Management Contractor to manage the construction works on site. Using the Management Contracting, the price certainty can be achieved with close monitor of the cost of each work packages so that the building can be built within the budget of  £ 20 million. Furthermore, the advantage of this ‘fast track procurement method tends to meet the time of completion for this project. Last but not least, since this is a prestigious project, this type of procurement route ensure the high quality and aesthetic standards are met in accordance with the Clients requirements. With these, it is recommended for the University to adopt the Management Contracting as the method of procurement to maximise the success of the project.

Prop 209 Essay -- essays research papers

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has been said that California’s 1996 Proposition 209 is misleading. It can also be said that it is discriminating to women and minorities. Proposition 209 was passed on November, 5 1996 but has not taken effect since the Supreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional in February 1997. Body   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As I stated before, Proposition 209 was passed in 1996 by California voters. It was passed by a margin of 56% to 46% but was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1997 and has not taken effect. There are many loop-holes in Proposition 209. One, for instance, is the title on the ballot: â€Å"Prohibition Against Discrimination and Preferable Treatment.† The proposed amendment would actually make sexual and racial discrimination more legal while attracting voters at the poll with its loosely written title. What Proposition 209 really does is end affirmative action outreach programs for women and minorities in government jobs and contracts, bans courts from ordering affirmative action remedies in the case of racial or sexual discrimination, and scraps math and science programs for girls. The proposed amendment is worded so carefully that it would persuade the average reader to vote for it, thinking they were voting against discrimination, while they w ere voting against discrimination programs. Proposition 209 hurts Californians in several ways. It would prohibit many outreach programs for women and minorities. Pr...

The Role of Oracles and Dreams in Herodotus’ the History

usChristina Bramanti October 5, 2012 CLAS 20105 The Role of Oracles, and Dreams in Herodotus’ The History Throughout Herodotus’ The History, Oracles, and dreams play an important role. While the gods have almost no presence throughout the book, the Oracles and/or dreams are linked to many of the major events. We first encounter the Oracles in Book I, when Croesus asks the Oracles at Delphi if he should attack the Persians, the Oracle replies telling him (in a very ambiguous way) that if he fights, he will destroy a great empire (7. 12).Unbeknownst to Croesus, the empire he will destroy will be his own. However, this answer from the Oracle is one of the things that convinces Croesus to attack Persia, in a manner jumpstarting the war. It could be that Croesus was always fated to destroy his empire, for the Pythia said, â€Å"Fate that is decreed, no one can escape, not even a god. Croesus has paid for the offense of his ancestor† (1. 91). This was important to reme mber throughout the book. Whether Herodotus believed it or not, the Oracles and Magi believed that one could neither change nor escape fate.In Book VII, the Oracles tell the Athenians that a wall of wood and Salamis will save Athens. When the Athenians first consulted the Pythia at Delphi, whose name was Aristonice, their demise was foretold. They asked for a different oracle. â€Å"My Lord,† they asked, â€Å"give us a better oracle about our fatherland; be moved to pity the suppliant boughs with which we come before you, or we will never go away from your shrine but remain right here till we die† (7. 141). The priestess replied: No: Athena cannot appease great Zeus of Olympus With many eloquent words and all her cunning counsel.To you I declare again this word, and make it as iron: All shall be taken by foemen, whatever within his border Cecrops contains, and whatever the glades of sacred Cithaeron. Yet to Tritogeneia hall Zeus, loud-voiced, give a present, A wall of wood, which alone shall abide unsacked by the foemen; Well shall it serve yourselves and your children in days that shall be. Do not abide the charge of horse and foot that come on you, A mighty host from the landward side, but withdraw before it. Turn your back in retreat; on another day you shall face them.Salamis, isle divine, you shall slay many children of women, Either when seed is sown or again when the harvest is gathered. (Herodotus, 1. 141) The Athenians argued about what this meant, whether they will be victorious or defeated at Salamis. Themistocles concluded that, if the oracle referred to Salamis as â€Å"isle divine† that must mean that the Greeks would be victorious, because, he argued, it would have been referred to as â€Å"O Cruel Salamis† if all of its inhabitants were going to die. He then convinced the men to prepare for a sea battle. The ‘wall of wood’ would be their ships.The Athenians agreed with Themistocles, if, for no other rea son, than his explanation sounded better than that offered by the oracle-interpreters. Hope, they saw, was better than despair. In this instance, the Oracles do offer some idea of what will come, but the oracle-interpreters, whose purpose is to interpret, are essentially ignored. Themistocles heard what was said and picked out a phrase by which he explained the rest of the prophecy. The Athenians believed what they wanted to believe, which was that Salamis would be a Greek victory, and the ships made up the wall of wood to which the Oracle referred.While the Athenians do not listen to what the oracle-interpreters had to say, they did take to heart what was told to them by the Oracle, and this led to many of the Greek peoples uniting—Argos sided with Persia; Gelon of Syracuse refused to help unless he could lead, thereby offending the Spartans; Corcyra assembled men and ships and went to the war, but sat on the sidelines watching; and Crete refused to join. The united Greece, led by Leonidas, decided to fight at Thermopylae, where Leonidas was killed. However, after this, the war goes to Salamis, where the Greeks, surrounded, battle the Persians, forcing Xerxes to retreat with his army.Dreams also play a particular role in Herodotus’ The History. Like the Oracles, dreams influence people to make certain decisions. And like the situations with the Oracles, fate also plays a role. These people had these specific dreams because they were fated to make said decisions. The dreams, possibly, were the only ways to convince them, or to ensure that fate run its course. So was the case with Astyages, who dreamt of his daughter, Mandane, â€Å"making water so greatly that she filled all his city and flooded†¦all of Asia† (1. 107). Astyages immediately went to visit the Magi who were dream interpreters.Fearing that this meant she would have more powerful offspring, he married her, not to a Mede, but to a lesser, Persian man. However, fate would no t back down. After his daughter was married to the Persian, Astyages had another dream. â€Å"†¦It seemed to him that out of his daughter’s privy parts there grew a vine, and the vine shaded all Asia† (1. 108). Astyages again went to dream interpreters among the Magi, who suggested that this dream meant that Mandane – who was now, in fact, pregnant – would have a child who would become king in the place of Astyages. This is the point in the story where fate really comes into play.Much like the story of Oedipus, attempting to control or otherwise act in a way opposed to, fate seems to be exactly what allows for fate to run its course. Astyages takes the child, a son, when it is born and hands him over to a kinsman, Harpagus, and orders Harpagus to kill the child. Harpagus agrees, but cannot bring himself to do such a thing. Harpagus, in turn, hands the child over to Mitradates, a slave herdsmen of Astyages. Harpagus also passes on the task of murderin g the child. When Mitradates gets home with the child, he tells his wife, Cyno, the task with which he had been charged.Cyno, however, had given birth that day to a child who was stillborn, and she suggested that they place the dead child on the mountain to ‘die’ and raise Mandane’s child as their own. This way, they still get to raise a child, and the innocent boy is not killed. By removing the child from his mother, and handing him over to his death, Astyages is creating the path for which the foreseen future can now happen. One day, the boy was playing with children in town and they named him their king, and he reprimanded one of the children, a son of a man of higher rank than his herdsman father.They were all brought before Astyages, and this is how he came to learn that the boy had not been killed. When the Astyages learned that the boy, who would be called Cyrus, but was not yet at this time called Cyrus, was still alive, at first he was angry with Harpagu s, and he killed Harpagus’ son and fed his flesh to Harpagus. Then, after consulting with the Magi, he believed that the dream had already come true, since the boy was named king. â€Å"As it is,† the Magi told him, â€Å"the dream has issued in something trifling; we are ourselves quite confident and bid you be the same.So send the boy away from your sight to the Persians and his parents† (1. 120). When Astyages sent the boy away to live with his true parents, Harpagus watched him grow into a man, and when Cyrus was a young man, Harpagus sent him a message, suggesting that he overthrow Astyages, for he [Astyages] had ordered Cyrus’ death. Had it not been for himself and the gods, Harpagus argued, Cyrus would have been murdered when he was an infant. In this way, the dream explained by the Magi came to be fulfilled. In Book VII, Xerxes dreams of a man coming to him and reprimanding him for his indecision. Are you changing your mind, Persian, and will not lead your army against Greece after you have bidden the Persians to gather their host? † the man asks Xerxes. â€Å"You will not do well, so to alter your counsel, now will he who stands before you prove forgiving. As you have resolved by day to do, that is the road for you to tread† (1. 153). Thomas Harrison, in his book, Divinity and History: The Religion of Herodotus, argues that misinterpretation of the Oracles was the rule, rather than the exception. Harrison essentially discredits the oracles because they are so ambiguous. Not only do such instances of mistaken interpretation reinforce†¦the fated nature of the eventual outcome, but at the same time they supply their audience with the tools to explain apparent non-fulfillment: the story of Croesus serves to illustrate both the possibility of fulfillment against one’s expectations and†¦that of dormant oracles, long forgotten, being fulfilled nonetheless. † To a point, this makes sense. The Ora cles are constantly, it seems almost intentionally, ambiguous, and the message is almost always misinterpreted, often times to the listener’s detriment.The Oracles and dreams play a crucial role in Herodotus’ The History. The book is driven mostly by reactions to things either heard from an Oracle, or experienced in a dream. Sometimes trying—unsuccessfully—to change what was foretold, and sometimes trying cause what is believed to be the meaning. Fate, however, has run its course. No matter how many times someone tried to change what was prophesied, whatever they did to change it just ended up being the cause of that which was trying to be avoided.

Women in Engineering

Women in Engineering The experience of women in engineering varies with those of men. This could be attributed to their physiology, biology, among other aspects.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Engineering specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Engineering industry has experienced a dramatic growth while its future is still bright since women graduates in the field, continues to increase. The profession is attractive since it pays well as compared to others that women engage in. Besides, the nature of work in the field has modified to attract more women in the recent past in areas such as physical, social as well as environmental sciences since it has long been dominated by men. However, it is not an easy task to work in such a profession since women are constantly faced with issues of skepticism, scrutiny as well as sexism. This paper shall investigate women in engineering in the U.S. It will analyze their progress and the effects of legal system, societal norms, as well as professional practice. Besides, the paper shall discuss the issues, challenges and opportunities they encounter in the course of their career and elaborate on different recommendations, aimed to improve their prospects in the working environment to pave way for better opportunities in the future. Women Engineering in the U.S The males are still dominating engineering professions in the U.S as well as other parts of the world. However, the academic institutions as well as corporations have invested efforts in recruiting women in the profession. For instance, in the U.S this has helped the nation to remain globally competitive by not just by having many engineering students but also by enhancing diversity in their organizations (Stewart et al. 3). For many years, women have been underrepresented in the profession. Their recruitment is therefore, necessary to manage future shortages of engineers in the country. Engineering Academics Women in en gineering profession in in the U.S face various Impediments that includes inadequate feminine facilities essential in technical subjects as physics.Advertising Looking for essay on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Social pressure and lack of career guidance in education institutions are also other limitations. Some females admit that they are not exposed to the profession until they are unable to choose it as part of their career hence guidance on the same is essential (Burke Mattis 6). Besides, women should change their attitudes towards engineering profession. In the U.S, women disregard to pursue engineering majors with only 2.6% of the females pursuing it (Leventman 3). From statistical trends, women have however become interested in the recent past. Statistical Trends (Leventman 4) Year Total No. of Engineering Students No. of Women Percentage of Women 1990 346160 54772 16.5% 1994 328346 6093 1 18.6 1998 329657 66276 20.1 2000 353118 69506 19.7 2002 383109 71586 18.7 2004 384792 69490 17.8 2006 371720 64544 17.4 Additionally, the engineering degrees awarded to females in the year 2005 and 2006 comprised of 19.4%, 22.6% and 23.3% for Bachelors, Masters and Doctorates respectively. In 2009, the bachelor’s, Masters and Doctorates degrees in engineering were 17.8%, 23% and 21% respectively (Leventman 6). Engineering Workforce In the workforce, women in U.S have declined from 12.7% in 2005 to 12.1% in 2007(Leventman 7). This is summarized in the table below; Type of engineering Total # engineers in thousands 2005 2007 Percent female 2005 2007 Aerospace 90 123 13.3 0.5 Chemical 55 75 14.3 21.2 Civil 319 382 13.2 11.5 Comp hardware 81 79 10.8 9.6 Comp software 832 907 21.9 20.8 Electrical Electronic 352 347 7.1 8.6 Industrial 189 161 14.9 17.5 Mechanical 318 296 5.8 7.3 Retention Challenges In the U.S, women have twice the likelihood o f abandoning the profession after some years as compared to their male subjects i.e. 25% higher in females in comparison to 12% in males (Leventman 8).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Engineering specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Even though, they claim that they are generally satisfied with the profession, they opt to abandon it based on a number of reasons that include; problems to strike a balance between the profession and family responsibilities, inadequate female mentors, limitations in the job requirements, perception of disparity in management’s assessment of their performance and exclusion from the â€Å"male dominated upwardly mobility colleague loop† (Leventman 8). As a result the profession experiences retention issues when it comes to women employees even when they are critically required. The Society of Women Engineers initiated a research study in 2007 consisting of 4500 males an d 1800 females awarded with bachelors and masters degrees. From the study, it was concluded that both genders have same education level as well as job satisfaction. Besides, both genders refer to better job opportunities to improve and enhancement of their salary as chief reasons to abandon the profession. However, women have a higher likelihood to refer to family-favoring working environment i.e. 12% as well as more interesting jobs i.e. 48% while men highlight on salary i.e. 17% as well as advancement i.e. 23%. Both genders alumni maintain that work/family is the greatest hindrance but women have two times higher likelihood i.e. 28% as compared to men i.e. 14%, to refer to this aspect. Women over 45 years of age have a 0.5 higher likelihood i.e. 29%, to become holders of senior engineering management directors as compared to men colleagues i.e. 55% (Leventman 15). Professional Practice Females abandon the private sector science, engineering and technology (SET) professions in mas sive numbers where 41% of the lower ranking SET are females and out of that, 52% abandons the positions particularly in their mid-late 30s. Additionally, machismo as well as sexual harassment prevails in the industry where 63% ascertains to encounter sexual harassment (Leventman 13). Others maintain that they feel isolated in the workplace, an experience referred to as the snowball effect present in SET working culture.Advertising Looking for essay on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Besides, they claim to experience varied work strategies where males receive rewards as a result of their masculine efforts such as firefighting while women are neglected. SET professions comprises of extensive long weeks as well as travelling, which impedes women since they are observed as homemakers where they find it hard to balance their career and family responsibilities. Moreover, women are taken as helpers in the profession hence they are not awarded with higher ranking positions. In IT sector, women neglect their jobs but this has declined from 36% to 25% in 1991 and 2008 respectively. This could be attributed to differences in salaries where women were paid an average salary of 70,370 USD in the year 2008 as compared to men that were paid an average salary of 80,357 USD. Following fifteen years in the IT profession, women would earn 11% less than men with similar experience (Leventman 12). Of importance therefore, IT organizations offers a good working environment for both genders where technical as well as communication skills are paramount. However, for gender parity to be achieved in such organizations there is a need for equal males and females to be awarded upper ranks in the organization structure. Moreover, equal numbers of males and females snood attain the topmost financial rewards. Societal Norms and Legal system The society has assumed that the engineering profession should be male dominated with regard to ability, role, aspiration as well as conduct. Besides, the corporate and educational organization has played a role to underrepresent women. The profession of science, technology and mathematics has also participated in this. These are some of the factors that are part and parcel of socio-political norms in a given community. It has been noted that men portrays superior spatial skills unlike women who depict superior verbal skills. However, advanced research ascertains that sex of an individual adds up to over 4% to the over-all variance in the sample (Badekale 14). As a result, there is a higher variation in spatial potentials within- sex as compared to between-sexes irrespective of such research studies. All the same, irrespective of the research findings, it is still commonly perceived that there exists some biological differences between the genders that are inherent, which enhance males to be successful in engineering as compared to women that eventually dictates the subject specialisms. Women are not only being impeded by lack of advocacy for equal opportunities in the engineering profession, but also are brought down by the denial of their rights in the workforce. From this research study, it is clear that women participation in engineering is still much lower than that of men in the US. Universities as well as corporations have however, drafted means to attract females in the profession although they depict lack of interest in the field, even when their potential is similar to that of men. Drastic recommenda tions are therefore, needed to manage women underrepresentation even if they are impeded by family responsibilities. Women depict lack of preferences in the field due to their upbringing, which is influenced by societal, legal, professional and cultural norms in the community. Recommendations Cultural change is so needed in corporate organizations as well as higher learning institutions. This could be attained through advocating for diversity, embracing attitudes and mentoring women to participate fully in engineering. To encourage females in the engineering profession, the institutions of higher learning should invest special efforts to recruit them in the industry by setting a special day to celebrate female engineers in an invent that is meant to expose female students in the field and commemorate the industry (Badekale 19). Female engineers have to become aware of the fact that they have to manage their biological differences to cope competitively with men. For instance, they ha ve to have timely pregnancies to balance their career and familial roles. Besides, they should work as teamwork to initiate their own unions and businesses to favor their needs. Women in the careers have to strike a balance between the family and work for them to be termed as efficient in the field (Burke Mattis xi). In the U.S, effective recruiting strategies in learning institutions are attributed to women engagement in engineering. These involves the choice of leaders who are committed responsibly in recruiting females, application of brochures, written publications to draw female students among other strategies (Badekale 13). These female engineers act as a role model to be looked upon by aspiring female students in junior levels to specialize in engineering. The general guidance and counseling should emphasize on relevance of engineering to female students where high ranking women engineers are invited as role models, which is a concept that is widely applied in the U.S leanin g institutions. Poor attitudes adopted by females towards engineering should be done away with (Badekale 14). A productive environment should be ensured for women to study and undertake engineering as a career by eliminating any hindrance to their participation. For instance, there should be enactment of a law to curb sexual harassment and female discrimination. Therefore, change of attitudes for female students as well as guidance and counseling that emphasizes on feminine needs in engineering should be initiated. Additionally, women engineers should lecture on related subjects for mentorship. Universities that concentrate primarily on women’s needs are necessary in a nation while the society should be made aware of the need for equality in the workforce through campaigns to eliminate the traditional mind of male domination in the field. Family support programs are essential for the state to enlighten family members on involving their daughters in engineering as well as elim inating sexism, for positive socialization. Authors of books should also eliminate masculinization of the profession while the legal system should draft policies to eliminate discrimination in hiring of female staff and encourage special provisions for them to cope in the field (Stewart et al. 79). Conclusion This research was aimed to generate the issues facing women in the engineering workforce. In conclusion, women should be more attracted in the profession and ensure their retention by motivation and other positive reinforcement strategies. The society should also participate by encouraging them to overcome any obstacle in the course of their career. Since they are faced with issues of declined tenure and promotion rates, extensive periods of promotion, declined rates of retention as well as minimal job satisfaction, these aspects should be dealt with, to ensure their efficiency, faculty productivity and higher retention for the ultimate job satisfaction that women engineers are in search of. Badekale, Adeke. â€Å"Woman and Engineering in Nigeria: Towards Improved Policy Initiatives and Increased Female Participation.† African Technology Policy Studies Network Working Paper Series, No. 37, 2003. Web. Burke, Ronald, and Mary Mattis. Women and Minorities in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics: Upping the Numbers. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2007. Print. Leventman, Paula. â€Å"Women in Engineering in the United States: Overview 1990-2010.† Northeastern University, 2010. Web. https://projectccwe.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/paula-leventman.pdf Stewart, Abigail, Janet Malley, and Danielle LaVaque-Manty. Transforming Science and Engineering: Advancing Academic Women. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2007. Print.

Interpretation of Clever Clothes Accounts Essays

Interpretation of Clever Clothes Accounts Essays Interpretation of Clever Clothes Accounts Essay Interpretation of Clever Clothes Accounts Essay Clever Clothes is a medium sized limited company with one major shareholder Mr Barnes. The company operates in the highly competitive textile industry. Clever Clothes is principally a commercial clothing manufacturer to the retail company Marks and Spencer, however it has seen the market reduce this year as the retail company seeks cheaper clothing from abroad, historically it has produced clothes as a sub-contractor to other textile companies but again due to the competition from abroad and the fact that Clever Clothes is not a highly automated business, sales from this sector have reduced dramatically over a 5 year period (see graph 1.Percentage Breakdown of Turnover). Clever Clothes is known in the industry for producing high quality garments and delivering good service and in the last three years has entered the mail order market and has started to see some growth in this sector this year where the opportunity to increase profits is possible as the customer is not in the extremely competitive commercial sector. The following pages will examine the recent historical past of Clever Clothes through examination of the Clever Clothes accounts from 1991 through to 1996 using the profit and loss and balance sheet accounts attached in Appendix 1. and Appendix 2.(page 19 and 20). From the P + L account the first and last figures give cause for concern, the turnover for the company has grown by 140% in four years yet Net profits have actually fallen from i 69K to i 57K over the same period. The costs of materials has increased in the four years by i 6. 4 million an increase of 292% and labour has increased by 140% over the same period, which would imply a larger production force and thus an improvement in profits however, when you look at the stock levels in the balance sheet it is apparent that too much material is being held here be it raw material or finished goods. As depreciation has not been shown separately I have assumed this figure is within the factory overheads and this would explain why there has been a steady increase in overheads as there has been little movement in plant and machinery, motor vehicles and office equipment up until this year. From the expenses in the P+L it can be see that there has been a small increase in Admin and Marketing over the four years but when comparing that to turnover in 95/6 both figures are around 1.5% this seems especially small when the company is trying to attract mail order work which one would imagine requires good marketing and phone support for potential customers. Two further lines of notes in the P+L account are the directors salary which has increased over the four years by 55% and the fact that dividend payments have remained at i 81K over the period which has certainly facilitated the decline in profits. From the balance sheet it is notable that fixed assets have not been re-valued over the four years and that in 1995/96 new plant and machinery was purchased almost doubling the current levels and this has clearly been paid for through Bank Loans and a   600K hire purchase agreement which one can only assume was taken out due to a potential refusal for a further loan from the bank especially as there appears to be a reliance on the bank overdraft where it is being utilised as a bank loan with the figure increasing from  132K to   597K in 1995/6. Two other worrying trends in the balance sheet are the increase in debtors and Creditors. Debtors now stand at i 699K and creditors at 858K. The following graph shows the trend over the period and whilst debtor days and creditor days have remained low (especially creditors 1995/96 22. 7 days) the trend for creditors certainly appears to be steep.

Follow several easy steps and create an unforgettable term paper!

Follow several easy steps and create an unforgettable term paper! Follow several easy steps and create an unforgettable term paper! Writing a term paper, for some students, is an arduous task. Even though writing a term paper is a big project, there are several steps that will help make the process go smoother such as first choosing a topic.   Inform or persuade? The next step is to decide if you want to inform or persuade your readers. Next, do some research on topics you find interesting. If something interests you in your life, write it down.   Evaluate your options Most importantly, evaluate your options. If your goal is to educate, choose a subject that you have already studied. If your goal is to persuade, choose a subject that you are passionate about. Whatever the focus is of the paper, make sure that you are interested in your topic. Prepare an outline and write your Thesis statement Next, prepare an outline for your term paper. For your term paper to be excellent, your thoughts need to be orderly and organized. If you choose to write an outline, write your topic at the top of the page. List your main ideas. Under each idea, list other smaller ideas that relate to your main idea. This will help you as you work on your paper because you will see connections that will tie in with the paper. Once your outline is in order, write your thesis statement. Your thesis statement is the main point of your paper. Keep in mind; your thesis statement will have two parts. The first part will state the topic and the second part will state the point/reason of the essay. Body of the essay and your Introduction The next part is to write the body of the essay. The body of your essay should explain, argue or describe your topic. Then, once you have developed your thesis and the body of your essay, it is time to write an introduction. The introduction should grab the reader’s attention and describe the main focus of your essay. Your Conclusion and Summarizing your Ideas Writing the conclusion is the next step in this process. The conclusion should bring closure to the paper and sum up your ideas, as well as providing a final look on your topic. Your conclusion should be no more than five sentences. Then, go back and check your work, such as checking the order of your paragraphs, that your paragraphs make sense, review the instructions for your paper and then review what you have written. Read your paper out loud and see if it makes sense. Be sure to check your essay for grammar and spelling mistakes. Take time for at least two rewrites, making sure everything is in order. Term paper writing service like those available here at Master Essay can be quite helpful with this and will work with you to review and rewrite your essay. To conclude, writing an excellent term paper can be done; however, it requires a plan, hard work and a desire to create a great looking paper! Check out services for help with your term paper!

Airplan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Airplan - Research Paper Example fer packages such as the ATA Flier Program and the ATA Travel Awards which were low cost programs which afforded travelers the chance to earn travel points which they could use to get discounts. The airline was also a big employer which had more than 2,230 people by the time of its demise (Maxon, 2008). The company has had many financial troubles since its inception. The worst came in 2006 when it filed for bankruptcy and in 2008 when it failed to emerge from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection (Lawton, 2007). There are many causes of the failure of ATA Airlines. These causes had a huge impact on the operations of ATA which led to its final demise. Below is an analysis of the causes and results of the company’s failure. There is also an overview of the possible solutions that could have saved the company from going under. The company was going through some financial difficulties when it closed down its operations. It could not finance its takeovers and neither could it sustain its existing operations. The financial crisis that hit the world did not spare ATA Airlines. The global financial crisis did a lot to make matters worse for the company. It was forced to file for bankruptcy twice: in 2006 and in 2008 (Maxon, 2008). The second time that the airline filed for bankruptcy was also the last time it was operational. Mismanagement might have led to the failure of ATA Airlines. Lack of leadership might have contributed to the fate that ATA Airlines fell to. Poor leadership may have led to the poor decisions that the Airline made. These decisions included takeovers and increasing operations even when it was clear that the company was not in a financial situation safe enough to carry out those operations (Lawton, 2007). It seems that ATA operated without having a solid operational strategy. The company sought to expand many of its flight services with little regard to the financial implications that this could have on its business (ATA Airlines). This lack of

Answer the questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Answer the questions - Essay Example According to them, all people are rebellious and deserve only Gods just punishment, so its up to God’s will to choose anyone, not because anyone deserves it for something but because its God’s unjust will to show his mercy as it was his kind choice. Calvin and Luther stressed that the center of the Christian faith was. "Justification by faith alone" (and related to that salvation by grace alone, not at all by works) was at the CENTER of the Christian faith, and this is the central teaching of the religion which needs to be recovered and is to b taught to everyone. Q: Thirty Years War from Ch.13, discussing why it took place? Who was on each of the sides (what countries, important personalities); important battles; and the peace that ended it? Why do you think that this was the last important of the religious wars? A: The Thirty Years War is one of the great clashes of early modern European history. it consisted of a series of declared and undeclared wars which wrath through the years 1618-1648 throughout central Europe. During the war the opponents were, on the one side, the house of Austria: the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors Ferdinand and Ferdinand together with their Spanish cousin Philip. The Habsburgs were opposed by various international opponents of House of Austria, during the long time of the Thirty Years War: the Danish, Dutch and, above all, France and Sweden. The Thirty Years War was a German civil war, in addition to the international scope. It was also; somehow, religious war among Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists. The series of conflicts, military and political, which make up the Thirty Years War, are highly complex. The main cause for this war was the inner crumble of the empire from 1555, as proved by the flaws of the majestic power, by the disgusting deficiency of patriotism evident by the lands of the empire, and by the paralysis of the

Machiavelli and the novelty of its political though Essay

Machiavelli and the novelty of its political though - Essay Example Machiavelli returned back to Florence where he observed how the Medici family was expelled, the oligarchic tyrants who had been in power for decades. He also witnessed the rise of Savanorola Girolamo, a firm religious believer who took over the power in Florence for a short period after the Medici Family. At that period, Italy was under severe political clashes. States were in a scramble for power over Italy, and so did Spain, France, and the Holy Roman Empire. Each state engaged in a battle of outdoing the powers of their opponents which amounted to less worthy activities as violence and blackmail (Herbert, 2007). That same year of the return of Machiavelli, the French attacked under the leadership of Charles VIII. This flow of events during Machiavelli’s time pressured Machiavelli’s thoughts about governance. This formed the basis of his later heartfelt appeal for the Italians to unite. Machiavelli in his farm wrote a controversial book called The Prince which is term ed as a realistic guide for ruling. Machiavelli uses this book to expose his thought on political power. However, this piece of art and Machiavelli’s tool of conveying his thought on politics has received criticism from various scholars that it only guides on how not to rule and not how to rule. Machiavelli uses a simple style and logic for the reader to understand, and this is due to his bid to provide political advice (Ryan, 2013). He evidently exposes his purpose of writing the book from the beginning of the book where he devotes the book to the ruler of Florence, Lorenzo de’ Medici. In his beginning two chapters of the book, The Prince, Machiavelli less talks about republican regimes and puts more of his concern on the autocratic regimes. He sets up the outline of the entire book in the first chapter by delineating the different princes’ and categories of principalities. According to Machiavelli’s book, he talks about warcraft and statesmanship where he considers that superior laws are track naturally from a superior military. He demonstrates this when he says â€Å"the presence of sound military forces indicates the presence of sound laws†. He tries to elaborate how a sound military system is related to the formulation of sound laws for the state. Machiavelli has a rather contradicting perspective on the war; he believes that triumphant states are built after a war has been won. This is contrary to the conventional understanding that successful states are those without war. His thought about war is fundamentally on how to make a city or state much stronger, how to handle citizens on newly acquired regions, and how to avoid internal rebellions that may be a hindrance in overcoming external adversaries. Machiavelli in his political thought gives emphasis not only on making use of the military but he also includes global diplomacy, calculated strategy, understanding geographical regions, understanding history, and domestic politics. This kind of political thinking be Machiavelli was timely novelty at the period when Italy was facing attacks from principalities neighboring them. Machiavelli also highlights how the human nature has impacts on politics. He says â€Å"|Love endures by a bond which men, being scoundrels, may break whenever it serves their advantage to do so; but fear is supported by the dread of pain, which is ever present†. He believes that various political traits are intrinsic in individuals’